"Where is the highest waterfall in the World?"
Hidden in a wilderness region, called the Gran Sabana, in Venezuela.

They tumble 1000 meters off the edge of an escarpment of the mysterious Auyan Tepuy, a sandstone mesa of 700 sq kms. The Angel Falls were discovered by accident in 1935 by Jimmy Angel (1899-1956), an American adventurer and bush pilot who operated in Central and South America.

Discovery
Last summer I made an excursion to view the Falls and learned of the exciting history of their discovery.

Jimmy Angel owned a Fokker monoplane of 1930's vintage, capable of carrying 3 passengers and freight. He became a legendary figure in Venezuela, in his quest for gold and daredevil flying.

While flying up the Devil's Canyon sector of Auyan Tepuy he spotted amongst the clouds an impressive waterfall that hurtled into space to spray the jungle below.

In 1937 he tried to land his plane on top of the flat-topped mountain close to the Falls, but ended up in a bog. He and his passengers had to abandon the plane and proceed on foot. A near vertical kilometer of cliff was descended to reach the jungle below. After 11 days of bushwhacking they reached an Indian village on a river that lead to civilization.

Jimmy Angel's plane, "El Rio Caroni", remained on the summit until 1970, when it was airlifted out and put on display at Cuidad Bolivar airport. It is in an excellent state of preservation, looking more robust than the little Cessna I flew in to Canaima.

Near midnight I booked into the Hotel Italia on the waterfront of the Orinoco River at Cuidad Bolivar, after a long, air-conditioned bus ride from Caracas.

Carlos, the manager, greeted me.
"Want to join a tour group to see the Angel Falls?" he asks, "Come and see me in the morning."
That's service for you!

The Tour
The tourist entry point is the isolated village of Canaima located at a beautiful spot on the Rio Carrao where a series of cataracts plunge into an extensive lagoon. This is Canaima National Park of 3 million hectares and there is no road access. The airstrip perimeter is a clutter of light planes of amazing variety. Twice a day a jet from Caracas disgorges tourists who are shuttled off to up market, air-conditioned accommodation.

My tour group consisted of 6 Europeans, German speaking, and a Venezuelan guide who spoke English. We boarded a motorized dugout canoe and sped across the lagoon in front of the cataracts. On the far side we hiked above Salto El Sapo, where another canoe laden with provisions was waiting to take us into the jungle.

Canoe access to the Angel Falls is restricted to the rainy season, June to November. Thanks to El Ni駉, the rains had continued and the river was negotiable at the end of November, but only just. Alternatively, weather permitting and with absence of cloud, you can fly by the Falls, but blink and you've missed them.

The Rio Carrao is up to 200 meters wide and leads straight to Auyan Tepuy. We donned lifejackets and huddled under canvas drapes to shelter from the spray as we roared up several scary rapids. Towards dusk we pulled into the bank at Camp Orquidea - a jungle camp beneath towering rocky bluffs.

The shelter was open-sided with a thatch roof. Sandstone floor paving stones show ancient ripple marks. Other tour groups used the camp. About 50 hammocks complete with mosquito nets awaited our tired bodies. Soon the kitchen was a hive of activity and we enjoyed spaghetti bolognaise by candle light, joined by a group of 20 Italians who raged into the night.

Next morning our canoe headed up the tributary Rio Churan to take us deep within the mountains. Rapids were more frequent and frightening. Huge sandstone blocks stud the river bed.

Finally we reached Rat Island opposite Devil's Canyon and our first glimpse of Angel Falls, an awesome plume falling from the clouds that shroud the mountain tops.

Our guide explained that an hour's hike up through the jungle will bring us to the Mirador, a rocky outcrop from where we would see the Falls in their entirety. Up, and jungle, are the operative words - a tangle of lianas, fallen branches, mossy rocks and mosquitoes made progress miserable but it was worth the struggle. The cloud cleared from the tops.

A river took off into space high above. What a sight! A tremendous amphitheatre at the base of the Falls was a swirling mass of spray.

A DC3 tourist aircraft flew by, in and out of the cloud - Wow, I thought, I'm glad to be on tierra firma and not dodging mountains!

We clambered down the rocks to the stream and bathed in the first substantial pool below the Falls. The cool mountain waters cleansed us of sweat and grime and left us invigorated for the hike back and a welcome lunch at the boat landing.

The return journey next day by canoe down the Rio Carrao was a delight. Above the rapids, we were put ashore to hike for a few kilometers while the boteros took the boat down unladen for the water level had dropped considerably. The afternoon flight to Cuidad Bolivar by Cessna taxi gave us a bird's eye view of neighbouring mesas poking up from the jungle.

Carlos, at the Hotel Italia, welcomed me back.
"You must join tomorrow's tour of the Gran Sabana by minibus." he implores.
What a salesman!

Welcome to the world's largest bathtub! That's the image to keep in mind when thinking about the Bay of Fundy. In no section of the Gulf are the tides more dramatic than here in the Bay, where the water may rise and fall as much as 50 feet (16m) each day.

The Bay of Fundy is a 170-mile-long (270km), straight-sided, somewhat funnel-shaped bay which splits at its northeastern head into two narrow bays, Chignecto Bay and the Minas Basin. It was formed as the continental plates parted millions of years ago. As they split, deep rift valleys formed, which quickly filled with sediment washed in from the land. The Bay of Fundy is one of these ancient rifts.

The great tides of the Bay of Fundy are due to two unique characteristics of this finger of the Gulf. The bay itself is U-shaped, and tapers significantly at its northernmost end. Naturally, as the tide flows into the Gulf of Maine and enters the Bay of Fundy, it rises up in response to this constriction. Furthermore, the time it takes for the tide to move up the Bay of Fundy is nearly identical to the time it takes for the tide to come in from the open Atlantic. This means that the tides range is amplified, similar to the effect produced by children sloshing water into waves in a bathtub. These two factors, combined with several other lunar features, make the tides of the Bay of Fundy a natural wonder of the world.

Visitors to the region speak in wonder of the "tidal bore," a small but fast-moving wave of water that is the face of the tide. Each day as the tide comes in, the tidal bore races across the the mud flats and up the Bay's coves and rivers, in turn bearing a rich load of nutrients back into the Gulf as it ebbs.

The upper region of the Bay of Fundy features extensive mud flats and expansive salt marshes. These occur as a result of the tides. During each tidal cycle, huge quantities of fine sediments are brought in to flood the coastal area. Much of the sediment remains in the sheltered areas along the coast, forming the famous red mudflats of the upper Bay. The mud flats and salt marshes are vital pieces of the Bays food production system.

Because the tides churn the water up each day, the water is rather turbid, or cloudy. The rays of the sun cannot reach very deeply into the water column, thus phytoplankton cannot photosynthesize. However, when the tide ebbs, it leaves behind a wealth of nutrients on the mud flats fully exposed to the sun. As a result, phytoplankton production is very low in the water but extremely high on the mudflats and salt marshes. In addition, both intertidal areas contribute vital nutrients to the Bay of Fundy ecosystem.

The mudflats also provide a larder of food to hungry migratory shorebirds. Each year up to two million semi-palmated sandpipers and other shorebirds stop over in the Fundy region during July and August on their annual migration from their spring breeding grounds, far to the north on the arctic tundra near Hudson Bay, to their wintering grounds along the coasts of South America. The semi-palmated sandpipers that settle in the Minas Basin and other areas represent 75-95% of the entire world's population of this species. They build up their body fat on tiny crustaceans found only in mud of a certain consistency.

Hermit crab feeding on mussel beds.

Due to the strength of the tide, the Bay acts as a vast nutrient pump for the rest of the Gulf of Maine, sending its waters whirling out past Grand Manan Island to mix in the Gulf of Maine current. It is around Grand Manan Island that one can see the great whales cavort in the early fall each year.

Drawn by the rich waters flowing from the Bay of Fundy and the resulting abundance of phytoplankton and fish in the area, the whales — such as humpback, minke, sei, and the rare right whale — come to feed and court. Recognizing the vital role the waters around Grand Manan Island play in the life cycle of the endangered right whale, the Canadian government established a seasonal Conservation Area from June to October each year. The areas around Grand Manan and nearby Roseway Basin are the only known locations where right whales can be observed in the summer and fall, according to reports.

Just south of Grand Manan Island is Machias Seal Island, a speck of rock on which a resurgent population of puffins lives. Their presence is testament to the relatively undisturbed character of this corner of the Gulf of Maine.

LOCATION
The Iguaçú Falls are located in the Iguaçú National Park, at the border of Brazil and Argentina.

DESCRIPTION
In a horseshoe form, 2,700 meters wide between the two countries, the Iguaçú Falls fill the visitors's view with the spray of 72 meter-high falls - the number of them varies between 150 and 300, depending on the flow of the Iguaçú River. The panorama overwhelms the onlooker with a sensation of fright, fascination and respect for the perfection of nature. A visit to the Falls and the contact with wildlife and the spectacle of the waters awake an emotion that many hope to experience once in a lifetime.

On August 27, 1883, the Indonesian island of Rakata almost vanished. In fact, about 75% of the land area of Rakata no longer exists. It was the most violent volcanic eruption recorded in world history that caused the destruction, and left more than 30,000 dead.

Krakatau (Krakatoa) volcano was located on the island of Rakata, 40 km off the west coast of Java. Since early historic ages, violent volcanic activity has been known to exist in the region. The "great eruption" of Krakatau must have taken place around 416 AD, as reported in ancient Javanese scriptures. The eruption formed three Islands (Rakata, Panjang, and Sertung), and caused a 7 km long caldera (cavity) to form underneath Rakata. When Krakatau erupted again in 1883, the island virtually collapsed into its cavity, 300 m below sea level. So violent was the eruption that volcanic ash and debris reached as far west as Madagascar. Tidal waves resulted in the destruction of more than 150 villages, and were felt in France and England. In Australia, hundreds of kilometers away from the site, the explosion was heard.

Since the disappearance of Krakatau, smaller eruptions have been observed. The ocean floor has been since gradually rising, eventually giving birth in 1927 to a new island, north of what remains of Rakata. Today, Anak Krakatau (Son of Krakatau) rises more than 150 m above sea level and is two km in diameter.

Mount Fuji (Fujisan) is with 3776 meters Japan's highest mountain. It is not surprising that the nearly perfectly shaped volcano has been worshipped as a sacred mountain and experienced big popularity among artists and common people.

Mount Fuji is a dormant volcano, which most recently erupted in 1708. It stands on the border between Yamanashi and Shizuoka Prefectures and can be seen from Tokyo and Yokohama on clear days.

The easiest way to view Mount Fuji is from the train on a trip along the Tokaido Line between Tokyo and Osaka. If you take the shinkansen from Tokyo in direction of Nagoya, Kyoto and Osaka, the best view of Mount Fuji can be enjoyed from around Shin-Fuji Station on the right hand side of the train, about 40 to 45 minutes after leaving Tokyo.

Note however, that clouds and poor visibility often block the view of Mount Fuji, and you have to consider yourself lucky if you get a clear view of the mountain. Visibility tends to be better during the colder seasons of the year than in summer, and in the early morning and late evening hours.

If you want to enjoy Mount Fuji at a more leisurely pace and from a nice natural surrounding, you should head to the Fuji Five Lake (Fujigoko) region at the northern foot of the mountain, or to Hakone, a nearby hot spring resort.

Mount Fuji is officially open for climbing during July and August via several routes.

Kilimanjaro is a giant stratovolcano reaching an elevation of 19,335.6 ft. (5,895 m). Other names for this volcano are: Kilima Dscharo, Oldoinyo Oibor (white mountain in Masai), and Kilima Njaro meaning shining mountain in Swahili. This volcano's highest and youngest cone is named Kibo. Shira to the west and Mawenzi in the east are older cones that make up Kilimanjaro. Kibo has not been active in modern times, but steam and sulfur are still emitted. At the top of Kibo's summit is a 1 1/2 mile (2 1/4 Km) wide crater.

Kilimanjaro is the largest of an E-W belt of about 20 volcanoes near the southern end of the East African Rift Valley. Also prominent in this belt are Ngorongoro caldera - a superb wildlife refuge, Ol Donyo Lengi - a carbonitite volcano, and Meru. Kilimanjaro is a triple volcano with the youngest and central peak of Kibo being 7.5-8.7 miles (12-14 km) from Shira to the west and Mawenza to the east. As all of Kilimanjaro's climbers know the gentle lower slopes steepen to 30 degrees about 13,000 ft.(4 km) elevation.

Shira is topped by a broad plateau, perhaps a filled caldera, and erosion has cut deeply into a remnant rim. In contrast, Mawenzi's summit is a steep rocky peak surrounded by cliffs 1,600 ft.(0.5 km) to 4,900 ft.(1.5 km) high. Erosion has removed the original crater, and a great horseshoe shaped ridge opens to the northeast. Mile-deep gullies with 30-45 degree gradients make many places practically inaccessible. Massive series of radial and concentric dyke swarm make up more than 30-40 percent of the summit area of Mawenzi. Kibo's glacier-clad summit, the highest spot in Africa, is a 1.2 x 1.7 mile (1.9 x 2.7 km) caldera, with an inner crater nearly a mile (1.3 km) wide, and inside that a deep, 1,148 ft. (350 m) wide central pit. Original volcanic forms are preserved at the summit and on many of the flanks, except on the south side where glaciers have cut deeply into the cone. Nearly 250 satellitic cones occur on Kilimanjaro, most following SE and NW trends. Estimates suggest that of a total volume of about 1,150 cu. miles, Mawenzi and Shira each contribute roughly 120 cu. mi. of andesites and basalts, Kibo has the same volume of similar but unexposed rocks, plus an additional 107 cu. miles. Interestingly, more than half of Kilimanjaro's volume is represented by older, basal basalts (672 cu. mi.), so once again- as in Cascade stratovolcanoes - a basaltic shield is the most important, but least conspicuous element of a chemically complex volcano. Kilimanjaro- Africa's largest volcano and among the largest on the Earth is indeed a beautiful and fascinating volcano of the world.

Sources of information:
Richard, J.J., Neumann van Padang M., 1957, Africa and the Red Sea. Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World, Rome: IAVCEI 4, p.75-78.

Geography of Niagara

The Niagara Region is located on a portion of a great plain which runs east to west from the northern Laurentian Highlands (Canadian Shield) approximately 161 kilometers north of Toronto, Ontario to the southern Allegheny Plateau which form the foothills of the Adirondack Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains.

The Niagara table land mass extends 100 kilometers (62 miles), both east and west from the Niagara River.

This plain is a small part of the Great Lakes low lands in which Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie and Lake Ontario lie.

The areas north and south of the Great Lakes low lands are the high lands.

Climate in Niagara has been similar to the current weather patterns for the past 5,000 years.

Today the Great Lakes hold twenty percent of the worlds fresh water supply. Ninety-nine (99%) percent of this water is of glacial origin.

The Niagara Peninsula is actually an isthmus.
 

Niagara Escarpment

The Niagara Escarpment begins in Watertown New York, USA and ends on the Manatoulin Island in the Province of Ontario, Canada.

It is 1,609 kilometers in length and is the weathered edge of a very ancient sea bottom. Throughout its length from Hamilton, Ontario to Watertown, New York the escarpment ranges from 183 meters (600 feet) above sea level to 189 meters (620 feet) above sea level.

The Niagara Escarpment is the ultimate reason the Falls of Niagara was born. Without the escarpment, Niagara Falls may never have materialized. After millions of years, the Niagara Escarpment continues to erode in a southward direction.

The Niagara Escarpment was formed and existed before glaciations. The land that is now Southern Ontario emerged from the sea of the Paleozoic Era at least 245 million years ago or more.

The Ordovician and the Silurian rocks of the Niagara Escarpment are of the oldest found in Niagara dating back to 430 - 415 million years ago.

The escarpment is not a fault line or a rift line but was created through erosion. It is a "cuesta".